C++ provides the following classes to perform output and input of characters to/from files: ofstream: Stream class to write on…
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Preprocessor directives
Preprocessor directives are lines included in the code of programs preceded by a hash sign (#). These lines are not…
Read MoreExceptions
Exceptions provide a way to react to exceptional circumstances (like runtime errors) in programs by transferring control to special functions…
Read MoreType conversions
Implicit conversion Implicit conversions are automatically performed when a value is copied to a compatible type. For example: 1 2…
Read MorePolymorphism
Before getting any deeper into this chapter, you should have a proper understanding of pointers and class inheritance. If you…
Read MoreFriendship and inheritance
Friend functions In principle, private and protected members of a class cannot be accessed from outside the same class in…
Read MoreSpecial members
Special member functions are member functions that are implicitly defined as member of classes under certain circumstances. There are six:…
Read MoreClasses (II)
Overloading operators Classes, essentially, define new types to be used in C++ code. And types in C++ not only interact…
Read MoreClasses (I)
Classes are an expanded concept of data structures: like data structures, they can contain data members, but they can also…
Read MoreOther data types
Type aliases (typedef / using) A type alias is a different name by which a type can be identified. In…
Read MoreData structures
Data structures A data structure is a group of data elements grouped together under one name. These data elements, known…
Read MoreDynamic memory
In the programs seen in previous chapters, all memory needs were determined before program execution by defining the variables needed.…
Read MorePointers
In earlier chapters, variables have been explained as locations in the computer’s memory which can be accessed by their identifier…
Read MoreCharacter sequences
The string class has been briefly introduced in an earlier section. It is a very powerful class to handle and…
Read MoreArrays
An array is a series of elements of the same type placed in contiguous memory locations that can be individually…
Read MoreName visibility
Scopes Named entities, such as variables, functions, and compound types need to be declared before being used in C++. The…
Read MoreOverloads and templates
In C++, two different functions can have the same name if their parameters are different; either because they have a…
Read MoreFunctions
Functions allow to structure programs in segments of code to perform individual tasks. In C++, a function is a group…
Read MoreStatements and flow control
A simple C++ statement is each of the individual instructions of a program, like the variable declarations and expressions seen…
Read MoreBasic Input/Output
The example programs of the previous sections provided little interaction with the user, if any at all. They simply printed…
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